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By the late 1630s, Puritans were in alliance with the growing commercial world, with the parliamentary opposition to the royal prerogative, and with the Scottish Presbyterians with whom they had much in common. Consequently, they became a major political force in England and came to power as a result of the First English Civil War (1642–1646). Almost all Puritan clergy left the Church of England after the restoration of the monarchy in 1660 and the 1662 Uniformity Act. Many continued to practice their faith in nonconformist denominations, especially in Congregationalist and Presbyterian churches. [2] The nature of the movement in England changed radically, although it retained its character for a much longer period in New England.
Foster, Thomas (October 1999). "Deficient Husbands: Manhood, Sexual Incapacity, and Male Marital Sexuality in Seventeenth-Century New England". The William and Mary Quarterly. 56 (4): 723–744. doi: 10.2307/2674233. JSTOR 2674233. Notestein, Wallace (1911). A History of Witchcraft In England from 1558 to 1718. American Historical Association 1911 (reissued 1965) New York Russell & Russell. p.195. From pandemics to puritans: when theatre shut down through history and how it recovered". The Stage.co.uk. Archived from the original on 31 December 2020 . Retrieved 17 December 2020. Bremer, Francis J. (2009). Puritanism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199740871.The Puritan conversion experience was commonly described as occurring in discrete phases. It began with a preparatory phase designed to produce contrition for sin through introspection, Bible study and listening to preaching. This was followed by humiliation, when the sinner realized that he or she was helpless to break free from sin and that their good works could never earn forgiveness. [52] It was after reaching this point—the realization that salvation was possible only because of divine mercy—that the person would experience justification, when the righteousness of Christ is imputed to the elect and their minds and hearts are regenerated. For some Puritans, this was a dramatic experience and they referred to it as being born again. [55] John Winthrop is noted for his sermon " A Model of Christian Charity" and as a leading figure in founding the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The Puritans in the Colonies wanted their children to be able to read and interpret the Bible themselves, rather than have to rely on the clergy for interpretation. [39] [40] [41] [42] In 1635, they established the Boston Latin School to educate their sons, the first and oldest formal education institution in the English speaking New World. They also set up what were called dame schools for their daughters, and in other cases taught their daughters at home how to read. As a result, Puritans were among the most literate societies in the world. By the time of the American Revolution there were 40 newspapers in the United States (at a time when there were only two cities—New York and Philadelphia—with as many as 20,000 people in them). [42] [43] [44] [45] The Puritans also set up a college ( Harvard University) only six years after arriving in Boston. [42] [46] Beliefs [ edit ] Calvinism [ edit ] Part of a series on Puritans eliminated choral music and musical instruments in their religious services because these were associated with Roman Catholicism; however, singing the Psalms was considered appropriate (see Exclusive psalmody). [70] Church organs were commonly damaged or destroyed in the Civil War period, such as when an axe was taken to the organ of Worcester Cathedral in 1642. [71] Ecclesiology [ edit ] Polemical popular print with a Catalogue of Sects, 1647. While the Puritans who had migrated were developing North America, those in England were still trying to reform the Anglican Church and gain a political voice. Their efforts would influence the English civil wars, the establishment of the Commonwealth, the execution of Charles I of England (r. 1625-1649 CE), and the rise to power of the Puritan magistrate and general Oliver Cromwell (l. 1599-1658 CE) who established the Protectorate. When the Protectorate collapsed and the monarchy was restored in 1660 CE, the Puritans of England lost their political power and advantage.
Akbar’s policies towards the Rajputs were particularly criticised by the historians in Pakistan. Sheikh Muhammad Raqif in Tarikh-i-Pakistan-wa-Hind (1992) writes “he favoured the Rajput so much so that his nobles had lost confidence in him. They regarded the Mughal rule no more Islamic.” Carpenter, John B. (Winter 2003). "New England's Puritan Century: Three Generations of Continuity in the City upon a Hill". Fides et Historia. The Conference on Faith and History. 35 (1): 41–58. Archived from the original on 9 August 2022 . Retrieved 26 May 2022. Attempting to force religious and intellectual homogeneity on the whole community, civil and religious restrictions were most strictly applied by the Puritans of Massachusetts which saw various banishments applied to enforce conformity, including the branding iron, the whipping post, the bilboes and the hangman's noose. [115] Swearing and blasphemy was illegal. In 1636, Massachusetts made blasphemy—defined as "a cursing of God by atheism, or the like"—punishable by death. [116] The paradox created by female inferiority in the public sphere and the spiritual equality of men and women in marriage, then, gave way to the informal authority of women concerning matters of the home and childrearing. [80] With the consent of their husbands, wives made important decisions concerning the labour of their children, property, and the management of inns and taverns owned by their husbands. [81] Pious Puritan mothers laboured for their children's righteousness and salvation, connecting women directly to matters of religion and morality. [82] In her poem titled "In Reference to her Children", poet Anne Bradstreet reflects on her role as a mother: Bremer, Francis J.; Webster, Tom, eds. (2006). "Savoy Assembly". Puritans and Puritanism in Europe and America: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp.533–534. ISBN 978-1576076781.
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Based on Biblical portrayals of Adam and Eve, Puritans believed that marriage was rooted in procreation, love, and, most importantly, salvation. [76] Husbands were the spiritual heads of the household, while women were to demonstrate religious piety and obedience under male authority. [77] Furthermore, marriage represented not only the relationship between husband and wife, but also the relationship between spouses and God. Puritan husbands commanded authority through family direction and prayer. The female relationship to her husband and to God was marked by submissiveness and humility. [78] Many of James's episcopal appointments were Calvinists, notably James Montague, who was an influential courtier. Puritans still opposed much of the Roman Catholic summation in the Church of England, notably the Book of Common Prayer but also the use of non-secular vestments (cap and gown) during services, the sign of the Cross in baptism, and kneeling to receive Holy Communion. [24] Some of the bishops under both Elizabeth and James tried to suppress Puritanism, though other bishops were more tolerant and, in many places, individual ministers were able to omit disliked portions of the revised Book of Common Prayer. [ citation needed] Puritans in both England and New England believed that the state should protect and promote true religion and that religion should influence politics and social life. [107] [108] Certain holidays were outlawed when Puritans came to power. In 1647, Parliament outlawed the celebration of Christmas, Easter and Whitsuntide. [109] Puritans strongly condemned the celebration of Christmas, considering it a Catholic invention and the "trappings of popery" or the "rags of the Beast". [110] They also objected to Christmas because the festivities surrounding the holiday were seen as impious (English jails were usually filled with drunken revelers and brawlers). [111] During the years that the Puritan ban on Christmas was in place, semi-clandestine religious services marking Christ's birth continued to be held, and people sang carols in secret. [112] Following the restoration in 1660, when Puritan legislation was declared null and void, Christmas was again freely celebrated in England. [112] Christmas was outlawed in Boston from 1659. [113] The ban was revoked in 1681 by the English-appointed governor Edmund Andros, who also revoked a Puritan ban on festivities on Saturday nights. [113] Nevertheless, it was not until the mid-19th century that celebrating Christmas became fashionable in the Boston region. [114] Some authors, like M Ikram Rabbani, even blame Akbar’s secularism for the division of Hindus and Muslims, claiming it to be the reason behind the origin of the two-nation theory. Shivaji in the court of Aurangzeb by M. V. Dhurandhar (Wikimedia Commons) Burns, Eric (2006). Infamous Scribblers: The Founding Fathers and the Rowdy Beginnings of American Journalism. New York: Public Affairs. pp.6–7. ISBN 978-1-58648-334-0.Puritanism has attracted much scholarly attention, and as a result, the secondary literature on the subject is vast. Puritanism is considered crucial to understanding the religious, political and cultural issues of early modern England. In addition, historians such as Perry Miller have regarded Puritan New England as fundamental to understanding American culture and identity. Puritanism has also been credited with the creation of modernity itself, from England's Scientific Revolution to the rise of democracy. In the early 20th century, Max Weber argued in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism that Calvinist self-denial resulted in a Protestant work ethic that led to the development of capitalism. Puritan authors such as John Milton, John Bunyan, Anne Bradstreet and Edward Taylor continue to be read and studied as important figures within English and American literature. [149] This depiction of Aurangzeb, and the larger Mughal Empire, was articulated by the British in the early days of colonial rule. Alexander Dow, Scottish orientalist and writer, in his 1772 book The History of Hindostan writes that “the faith of Mahommed is peculiarly calculated for despotism; and it is one of the greatest causes which must fix for ever the duration of that species of government in the East.” For him, and other colonial era thinkers, the solution to this despotism was the imposition of British command over India. While Indian nationalist leaders vehemently rejected the solution, many retained the fundamental characterisation.
During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I, an uneasy peace prevailed within English religious life, but the struggle over the tone and purpose of the church continued. Many men and women were more and more forced to contend with the dislocations–emotional as well as physical–that accompanied the beginnings of a market economy.Nuttall, Geoffrey F. (1992). The Holy Spirit in Puritan Faith and Experience. University of Chicago Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-226-60941-6. Campbell, John Campbell Baron (1851). John Lord Campbell, The Lives of the Lords Chancellors and Keepers of the Great Seal of England , vol. 2, 1851, p. 412. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023 . Retrieved 19 June 2010– via Google Books. Neil, Daniel (1844). The History of the Puritans, Or Protestant Noncomformists: From the Reformation in 1517, to the Revolution in 1688; Comprising an Account of Their Principles; Their Attempts for a Farther Reformation in the Church; Their Sufferings; and the Lives and Characters of Their Most Considerable Divines. Vol.1. p.246. Archived from the original on 4 May 2016 – via Google Books. Marshall, Peter James (2005). The Making and Unmaking of Empires: Britain, India, and the United States C. 1750–1783. Oxford University Press. p.30. ISBN 978-0199278954. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023 . Retrieved 8 June 2018– via Google Books. Puritans shared with other Calvinists a belief in double predestination, that some people (the elect) were destined by God to receive grace and salvation while others were destined for Hell. [51] No one, however, could merit salvation. According to covenant theology, Christ's sacrifice on the cross made possible the covenant of grace, by which those selected by God could be saved. Puritans believed in unconditional election and irresistible grace—God's grace was given freely without condition to the elect and could not be refused. [52] Conversion [ edit ]
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